Radio: War of the Worlds CSP (1938)
War of the Worlds: Blog tasks
Read Media Factsheet #176: CSP Radio - War of the Worlds. You'll need your Greenford Google login to download it. Then answer the following questions:
1) What is the history and narrative behind War of the Worlds?
War of the Worlds was originally a science fiction novel by H. G. Wells, published in 1898. It tells the story of a Martian invasion of Earth, showing humanity's vulnerability against a technologically superior force.
In 1938, Orson Welles adapted the novel into a radio drama that presented the invasion as if it were happening live through realistic news bulletins and eyewitness reports.
2) When was it first broadcast and what is the popular myth regarding the reaction from the audience?
It was first broadcast on 30 October 1938.
The popular myth is that over a million Americans believed the invasion was real, causing nationwide panic, people fleeing their homes and overwhelming emergency services.
Modern research suggests this panic has been greatly exaggerated.
3) How did the New York Times report the reaction the next day?
The New York Times claimed the broadcast had caused mass panic and hysteria, reporting that listeners fled their homes, jammed telephone lines and feared America was under attack.
These reports helped establish the myth that still surrounds the program.
4) How did author Brad Schwartz describe the the broadcast and its reaction?
Brad Schwartz argues that the panic was far smaller than newspapers claimed.
He suggests only a relatively small number of listeners were genuinely frightened and that the widespread hysteria became a myth created and reinforced by newspapers.
5) Why did Orson Welles use hybrid genres and pastiche and what effect might it have had on the audience?
Welles mixed:
- science fiction
- drama
- news broadcasts
- live reporting
This hybrid genre and pastiche of genuine news bulletins made the program appear authentic.
The realistic format blurred the line between fiction and reality, making some listeners more likely to believe it.
6) How did world events in 1938 affect the way audiences interpreted the show?
Europe was experiencing increasing political tension before the outbreak of the Second World War.
Many Americans were already anxious about:
- Nazi Germany
- possible invasion
- international conflict
As a result, unexpected emergency broadcasts seemed believable.
7) Which company broadcast War of the Worlds in 1938?
It was broadcast by the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS).
8) Why might the newspaper industry have deliberately exaggerated the response to the broadcast?
Newspapers viewed radio as a major competitor for advertising revenue.
By portraying radio as irresponsible and dangerous, newspapers could:
- damage radio's credibility
- encourage stricter regulation
- persuade audiences and advertisers to continue supporting newspapers.
9) Does War of the Worlds provide evidence to support the Frankfurt School's Hypodermic Needle theory?
Only partly.
The original story appears to support the theory because some listeners believed the broadcast immediately.
However, later research suggests most listeners:
- recognised it as fiction,
- tuned in after disclaimers,
- or questioned its accuracy.
Overall, the broadcast does not strongly support the Hypodermic Needle theory because audiences were not uniformly passive.
10) How might Gerbner's cultivation theory be applied to the broadcast?
George Gerbner argued that long-term media exposure shapes people's view of reality.
Radio was considered highly trustworthy in the 1930s.
Years of trusting radio news may have cultivated the belief that broadcast announcements were truthful, making some listeners more likely to accept the fictional news reports.
11) Applying Hall's Reception Theory, what could be the preferred and oppositional readings of the original broadcast?
Using Stuart Hall:
Preferred reading
- Listeners accepted the broadcast as a realistic emergency.
- They believed the Martian invasion was genuine.
Oppositional reading
- Listeners recognised the program as fictional entertainment.
- They questioned the realism and understood it was a drama.
12) Do media products still retain the ability to fool audiences as it is suggested War of the Worlds did in 1938? Has the digital media landscape changed this?
Yes, but in different ways.
Today audiences may be misled by:
- fake news
- deepfakes
- manipulated videos
- social media misinformation
However, digital media also allows people to:
- fact-check quickly,
- compare multiple sources,
- identify misinformation.
Therefore, while deception is still possible, audiences generally have greater opportunities to verify information than in 1938.
- Radio was the most trusted news medium.
- Many listeners tuned in after the introduction and missed the disclaimer.
- The program closely copied genuine news bulletins.
- Political tensions before World War II increased public anxiety.
- Live reporting and eyewitness interviews sounded authentic.
Newspapers sensationalised the story, describing:
- nationwide panic,
- mass hysteria,
- people fleeing,
- chaos.
Many headlines exaggerated what had actually happened.
Radio had become America's dominant mass medium.
Families gathered around their radios every evening, making it a trusted source of:
- news,
- entertainment,
- political speeches,
- emergency information.
Although broadcasters were regulated, there were fewer established rules about fictional broadcasts imitating news, allowing Welles to experiment with format.
Hypodermic Needle Theory
- Suggests audiences accepted the messages directly.
- The broadcast has often been used as evidence, although modern research challenges this.
Reception Theory
- Different audiences interpreted the program differently.
- Some believed it; many recognised it as fiction.
Cultivation Theory
- Years of trusting radio made audiences more likely to believe realistic broadcasts.
Two-Step Flow
- Many people reacted because friends, neighbours or relatives discussed the program, rather than hearing it directly.
Two commonly cited headlines include:
- "Radio Fake Scares Nation."
- "Terror by Radio."
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